- Exploitation as a Threat or the Only Real Salvation?

* Orangutan Foundation, 7 Kent Terrace. LONDON NWI 4RP; all questions/corrections should be sent to this address.
** Department of Anthropology, University College London, Gower Street, LONDON WC1E 6BT

This paper was edited and is part of a volume entitled: The Exploitation of Mammal Populations, edited by V. Taylor and N. Dunstone, Chapman & Hall, London, 1996.

For a complete listing of volume content, please click here.

It is published with permission of the authors and Chapman & Hall. Permission to use this article is non-exclusive and for one-time use only. Any further use (including storage, transmission or reproduction by electronic means) is prohibited without separate permission by the authors and publishers, Chapman & Hall.

The current plight of orangutans highlights many important welfare and conservation issues. This chapter explores human exploitation of the orangutan, covering past misuse, present abuse, and the future potential use of these animals. In particular, it concentrates on the situation today, and confronts some of the questions, and controversies, posed by our continuing exploitation of the orangutan.

The earliest evidence of orangutan use by humans was as a food source - charred remains of these animals have been found dating back as far as 35,000 years ago. Modern day exploitation is of a qualitatively different nature. This includes the keeping of up to 600 individuals as "pets" in Taiwan; use in the television and film industries; use as advertising gimmicks increasing the sales of car tyres, tea, and fizzy drinks; and use as a symbol to promote tourism and as a valuable commodity to be visited by over 200,000 people a year. Future exploitation in the form of encouraging high paying eco-tourists to visit the tropical forests of Malaysia and Indonesia may be the only way to ensure the survival of the magnificent red ape.

I. INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

A. INTRODUCTION

B. GENERAL ECOLOGY

C. PREHISTORICAL RANGE AND EXPLOITATION

II. MODERN DAY DISTRIBUTION AND SITUATION

A. CAUSES OF FORMER RANGE CONTRACTION

B. CURRENT POPULATION STATUS

C. PRESENT DAY DIRECT THREATS

III. CURRENT EXPLOITATION

A. PET TRADE IN TAIWAN

1. The motivation for keeping orangutans

2. The source of orangutans from within Taiwan

3. The major problems

4. The main solutions

B. ENTERTAINMENT AND ADVERTISING

C. RECENT HUNTING

D. REHABILITATION

IV. OVERVIEW OF THE SITUATION

V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

VI. REFERENCES

I. INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

A. INTRODUCTION

This chapter has three distinct parts. It begins by briefly documenting the manner in which humans have used the orangutan in the past, highlighting why in this particular case this constitutes something of a misuse. Then it covers selected aspects of the present exploitation of this highly vulnerable ape, much of which may more reasonably be described as abuse. Finally, it considers ways in which future exploitation might be to the advantage of the conservation and welfare of the orangutan.

The aims in this chapter are relatively modest. They are to summarize what seem to be some of the more significant aspects of human exploitation of the orangutan. By its very nature, this treatment is both selective and subjective, but there is a need to draw greater attention to a number of points raised by the present situation and this is simply what is attempted here.

B. GENERAL ECOLOGY

Orang utans are the largest extant primates found in Asia where, currently, two subspecies are recognized: Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus in Borneo, and P. p. abelii in Sumatra (Courtenay et al. 1988; but see Röhrer-Ertl, 1988). These predominantly arboreal, frugivorous, and highly sexually dimorphic apes have had both a long and chequered history of exploitation, which appears to have originated in prehistoric times and continues right through to the present.

C. PREHISTORICAL RANGE AND EXPLOITATION

Fossil evidence suggests that, during the Pleistocene, orangutan distribution extended from Java in the south, across mainland Asia, and reached up as far north as China (von Koenigswald, 1982). In more recent historical times however, populations have been restricted to pockets of forest on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra (for example, see Rijksen, 1978).

Fossils found at the Niah Caves in Sarawak show that anatomically modern human were present in South-East Asia some 40,000 years ago, and also charred remains of the orangutan have been found and dated at about 35,000 years (von Koenigswald, 1982). At Niah and in the Padang Highlands of West Sumatra, orangutans comprise a large proportion of the remains found, suggesting that they were extensively used as a food resource. Additionally, it has been suggested that at least some individuals were kept as pets by these early cave dwellers (Harrison, 1962).

II. MODERN DAY DISTRIBUTION AND SITUATION

A. CAUSES OF FORMER RANGE CONTRACTION

The present geographical range of these animals may best be described as something of a "relic" pattern, and clearly represents just a fragment of their former extensive distribution area (Rodman, 1988). For example, even within a single area such as Borneo, the distribution is highly patchy with the animals being absent from large areas (Payne, 1986; Mackinnon, 1990).

Humans seem to have been largely responsible for this dramatic decline and range contraction (Sugardjito & van Schaik, 1991). Early use of orangutans as a source of meat is not altogether surprising: what is significant in this case is the unique vulnerability of these animals to such exploitation. Much of this may be attributed to extremely long interbirth intervals, typically in the region of eight years, making orangutans the slowest breeding species within the primate order (Galdikas & Wood, 1990). Traditional hunting by indigenous people has almost definitely been responsible for a number of local extinctions (Mackinnon, 1971); it has even been suggested that this may have replaced the practice of human head-hunting and cannibalism in the region (Rijksen, 1978).

Additionally, a variety of other factors have been proposed to explain the current dispersion of orangutans; for example, the distribution of minerals and the availability of suitable foods have often been suggested (eg: Payne, 1986; Djojosudharmo & van Schaik, 1992). It is likely to be a combination of such influences that has led to the present fragmented range.

B. CURRENT POPULATION STATUS

Considering the current status within these restricted areas, the best estimates for population sizes suggest maximum totals of 5,000 and 22,000 animals in Malaysia and Indonesia respectively (Sugardjito & van Schaik, 1991); Table 1 gives the minimum and maximum figures available, together with the land areas of the various regions concerned (Payne & Andau, 1989).

Table 1.- Current Population Estimates of Orang utans

Region/Country	Estimated Numbers	Land Area (km2)
Sabah and Sarawak (Malaysia)	3,000-5,000	197,605
Kalimantan (Indonesia)	12,000-15,000	539,460
Sumatra (Indonesia)	5,000-7,000	473,606

The most obvious threat now facing orangutan populations is the loss of habitat due to logging operations. In Kalimantan and Sumatra, human encroachment in the form of transmigration, which then leads to shifting agriculture, combined with a major logging industry has undoubtedly had the greatest impact (Collins et al., 1991). In Sabah and Sarawak, logging is mainly selective, and some secondary forest is eventually converted to plantation (Marsh & Greer, 1992). The ultimate conversion of primary forested habitats for agricultural use results in a permanent and irretrievable loss of habitat. However, even the practice of selective logging is thought to reduce orangutan densities from a maximum of three individuals/km2 in primary forest to one individual/km2 in logged/secondary forest (van Schaik & Azwar, 1991).

The direct threat posed by logging, coupled with the low reproductive rates, is a real cause for concern. Laws against the owning, killing, capture or harming of orangutans were passed in Indonesia in 1931, in Sabah in 1963, and in Sarawak in 1958 (Payne & Andau, 1989). In spite of this forrnal protection, the habitat destruction leaves the orangutan particularly vulnerable to further exploitation.

III. CURRENT EXPLOITATION

Nowadays the exploitation of orangutans has taken on a qualitatively different nature: there are currently four major ways in which human beings continue to use orangutans. Of these, two- the pet trade (largely restricted to Taiwan) and the media industry - may more accurately be termed as an abuse of this species. The third, a recent resumption of hunting, is perhaps most appropriately considered as further misuse of these animals. And the fourth, rehabilitation, originally seen as a means of law enforcement to prevent private ownership, now uses the orangutan as a commodity to be exploited for the purposes of ecotourism, education and local awareness. The following section highlights some of the more significant issues.

A. PET TRADE IN TAIWAN

An archetypal example of exploitation is, without doubt, provided by the pet trade in Taiwan. During the period 1985 to 1990, political, economic, and social factors combined to allow the smuggling of up to 1,000 orangutans (Phipps, 1993). These individuals were poached from Kalimantan and taken into the Republic of China on Taiwan for sale as exotic pets. The trade continued unrecognized and unabated until the Orangutan Foundation raised the issue internationally. Although enforcement of Taiwan's 1989 Wildlife Conservation Law has now almost halted the trade in rare primates, the problem remains of what to do with the animals already on the island.

Estimates vary but for each orangutan reaching Taiwan as many as three to five individuals are thought to have died in the process (Cater, 1991). This represents a potential loss of more than 3,000 animals. Even at its most conservative, such a figure suggests at least a 10 per cent decline in the existing wild population. During 1990-1991 the Orangutan Foundation Taiwan conducted a detailed survey to monitor various aspects of the Taiwanese situation (Lee et al., 1991). Some of the more significant findings of this study are reported below.

1. The motivation for keeping orangutans.

The demand was attributed to a popular 1986 television programme, "The Naughty Family" which featured an orangutan named "Hsiao Li", portrayed as an ideal companion and pet. Table 2 documents the reasons people gave for keeping the animals as pets; the stated motivation of the overwhelming majority (35 %) was that people liked orangutans (n = 48 owners). The original orangutan on television was replaced by a toy one at the beginning of 1990 but, as Table 3 shows, the majority of acquisitions had already been made between 1987 and 1989 (n = 75 orangutans) .

Table 2. The Pet Trade in Taiwan: Motivations for keeping orangutans.

Motivation	Number of Respondents
to breed	1
out of curiosity	1
for companionship	2
to make money	10
given to them	6
children like them	5
feel sorry for them	4
like them	35

Year	Number of Orangutans first aquired
1971-1985	8
1986	7
1987	10
1988	17
1989	21
1990	12

Taiwan, not being a member of CITES, passed their own Wildlife Conservation Law, which became effective in June 1990. As a result, owners were asked to register their pet orangutans. The total numbers in Taiwan are difficult to estimate: 283 were registered by November 1990 but, based on their enquiries, the Orangutan Foundation Taiwan believes that only one in three owners registered.

2. The source of orangutans from within Taiwan.

Of 85 individual animals whose sources were identified, a total of 80% were obtained from newspaper advertisements, pet shops, and weekend markets; the remaining 20% were "given" to their then current owners. Today, any visitor to Taiwan may still easily find orangutans on show in the infamous Snake Alley.

3. The major problems.

A principal concern is that of illness: orangutans are generally susceptible to many human diseases and infections (Kaplan & Rogers, 1994). During two health checks conducted by the Orangutan Foundation Taiwan, 11 out of 30 animals examined had a positive reaction to hepatitis B; four tested positive to tuberculosis, and most had parasites. By law, all domestic animals are to be destroyed if they contract tuberculosis; however this regulation does not apply to protected wildlife species.

The second major, and a growing, problem is what happens when individuals grow older. In the 1990-1991 survey, it was found that some 64% of pet orangutans were aged between one and five years. These animals are now approaching sexual maturity, and this inevitably leads to serious problems such as aggression and escape which often result in abandonment by the owners (Orangutan Foundation Taiwan, pers. comm.)

4. The main solutions.

Largely, the situation has been perceived as Taiwan's problem- governments, zoos, the Conservation (formerly Captive) Breeding Specialist Group, and even animal welfare organizations have been reluctant to acknowledge this issue, let alone confront it. At present, the only solution has been repatriation to Wanariset, a reintroduction centre in East Kalimantan. To date three groups of orangutans have been sent back:

(a) the infamous "Taiwan Ten" that were kept in Jakarta from November 1990 to October 1991. Seven of these were then sent to Wanariset and three to a medical research centre in Bogor; eventually two of these were also returned to Wanariset.

(b) Another ten individuals were dispatched to Wanariset in January 1994.

(c) the most recent repatriation to Wanariset has been of 12 animals in September 1994. Of these, five had been abandoned, five were willingly given up, and the costs of the repatriation was borne by the owners, and two were confiscated by police in a drug raid (Orangutan Foundation Taiwan, pers. comm. ) .

During the 1990/1991 survey, 82% of owners claimed they would keep their animals when they grew older. The above figures however, contradict such an assertion. The fact that animals are being abandoned or voluntarily relinquished appears to be directly related to the problem of maturing animals.

An additional solution has been the establishment of a shelter at Pintung in southern Taiwan, attached to a Polytechnic with a veterinary school. The original idea was that this would be upgraded to a permanent shelter for confiscated wildlife but so far this objective has not been realised as there is no adequate caging or husbandry expertise (Orangutan Foundation Taiwan, 1991).

B. ENTERTAINMENT AND ADVERTISING

The use of orangutans in the entertainment and advertising industries is another candidate for the category of classic exploitation. Here there appears to be something of a sudden upsurge in the numbers of orangutans involved; indeed, it would be fair to say that these are quite the "flavour of the month" in this context. Some notable examples of products of recent advertising campaigns include a particular brand of tea (more commonly associated with their use of chimpanzees), a tire company, and two brands of orange drinks. With respect to the film industry, orangutans have featured in the world of Hollywood as stars of several films.

All of these orangutans, with the exception of the tea brand example, are based in the United States of America where the advertisements and films have been shot; with the more recent films, a disclaimer was run at the end specifically for broadcasting in the Asia-Pacific region, stating: "Orang Utans are endangered and protected under International Law. Do not buy them" (Orangutan Foundation International, 1994).

Currently in the United States of America, there are approximately 62 privately owned orangutans, most of which are hybrids of the two sub-species; the vast majority of these are or have been used in show business. This includes such diverse roles as cabaret artists, tourist attractions at Universal Studios, and as part of the entourage of travelling circuses. As a comparison, there are approximately 200 chimpanzees in private ownership, of which 25% are used for entertainment compared to some 60% of orangutans (P. Regan, pers. comm.).

C. RECENT HUNTING

There have been some recent reports of a resumption of a form of exploitation that most people have long dismissed as a direct threat. Two independent film makers (Mark Linfield, pers. comm.; Sarah Cunliffe, pers. comm.) visiting Kalimantan have reported an increase in local hunting pressure. This appears to be a result of recent fires, the increased intensity and frequency of which (compared with previous years) is likely to be due to a combination of factors. A particularly severe dry season together with shifting cultivation, the creation of plantations, and a general opening up of the forest canopy following logging operations, are all thought to be responsible. The presence of dry debris makes it possible for fires to sweep through, even reaching areas of primary forest, including peat swamps, that are not normally susceptible to such damage.

For example, within the area of West Kalimantan, particularly high densities of orangutans have been seen compressed into 50 m. wide strips of riverine forest; satellite imagery has identified some 2,000 sources of the fire in this area (M. Linfield, pers. comm.). The scale of this problem has led to indigenous people suffering a severe food shortage as they have lost their normal source of meat; furthermore, these people do not have cultural taboos against eating orangutans. The large size and slow movements of orangutans make them easy targets for modern hunters and has led to renewed exploitation reminiscent of that by early humans in this area. The female animals are most often hunted; inevitably these are accompanied by dependent young. Where families can afford to feed an extra mouth, these infants are often retained as pets. During August to September 1994, over 20 animals, including a six week old infant with its umbilical cord still attached, were confiscated in a period of ten days. There has been a concomitant increase in the number of orangutan skulls now on display in the local towns - in one shop, six skulls, both old and new, were available for sale (S. Cunliffe, pers. comm.).

D. REHABILITATION

Rehabilitation is included here, both as a solution to the problems posed by the' previously discussed "use" of orangutans and as yet another form of exploitation of the species. The first such centre was set up in 1961 (Harrison, 1962); nearly 35 years on, we are still faced with the problem of what to do with confiscated orangutans.

Currently, there are five main rehabilitation centres: one each in Sabah and Sarawak (the Malaysian States of Borneo) and three in Indonesia, of which one is in Sumatra and two in Kalimantan (Lardeux-Gilloux, 1994). The very fact that rehabilitation has been attempted in all parts of the orangutan's existing range emphasizes the important role it has assumed as a part of conservation strategies. Due to their solitary nature, and therefore lack of territorial disputes and problems of being accepted by a group (that are likely to apply to other great ape species), orangutans have been considered prime candidates for re-introduction to the wild. To date, according to personnel at the various centres involved, at least 500 individual orangutans have passed through some sort of rehabilitation process.

A number of issues are raised by the question of rehabilitation. Originally seen as a means of law enforcement, and subsequently as a form of conservation, the centres are now considered absolutely vital in terms of dealing with the welfare of the ever increasing problem of confiscated animals (Sugardjito & van Schaik, 1991). However, in at least some of the existing rehabilitation centres, orangutans may most accurately be viewed as a commodity being exploited for the purposes of eco-tourism. In the final analysis, orangutan rehabilitation has to be seen as a symptom of our failure to get to the underlying cause of the problem (Galdikas, 1991).

This notwithstanding, there are a number of possible benefits to be reaped from the process; these centres:

• enforce laws;
• remove orangutans from illegal trade;
• fulfil welfare considerations with a potential improvement in the quality of life for ex-captive orangutans;
• protect and save particular areas of forest; for example, the Centre Sepilok is located within one of the last remaining areas of primary forest in Sabah, and, because of the orangutan releases at Wanariset, the Indonesian government may be persuaded to protect the surrounding forest;
• lead to educational benefits and raise conservation awareness particularly among local people;
• are a source of revenue from visitors, potentially good for local business;
• provide easy access to orangutans for behavioural research purposes.

On the other hand, there are a number of obvious disadvantages associated with rehabilitation centres:

• they provide governments with a good image which deflects from the real threats of habitat destruction, hunting and poaching;
• they distract attention from the need to conserve more protected areas, and, in most cases, there is little to no follow-up of the released animals;
• there is a risk of transmitting diseases to the wild population, and a danger of infection during quarantine (most confiscated orangutans have diseases due to their previous contact with humans).

IV. OVERVIEW OF THE SITUATION

There is little doubt that past exploitation in the form of hunting pressure has shaped the destiny of the orangutan - it is particularly disturbing that this is now being resumed, as this species is unlikely to sustain such exploitation for long. More integrated conservation strategies and better management practices are clearly needed to prevent such misuse of orangutans from carrying on into the future.

With respect to the pet trade, the present predicament is perhaps best summed up by Phipps (1993):

"It is a mistake common to the whole of mankind, thinking that we can meddle in things like the natural order, things that we don't completely understand, and then, if it doesn't work out, we can put it right. Well, who is going to put it right for the countless misplaced orangutans ?"

Few, if any, other species, listed as CITES Appendix I, are abused precisely for their human qualities. More significant is the problem of what the future holds for those orangutans still in Taiwan. Further repatriation to Indonesia does not seem like a feasible option. Rehabilitation centres and the surrounding areas are close to reaching saturation point. In the case of severely diseased orangutans, there is probably little hope of them ever being released. We are then forced to ask ourselves the difficult question of what to do with these individuals. The frightening answer that confronts us is that, with such a diminished quality of life, euthanasia might be a fairer alternative. Although seemingly unacceptable, perhaps this is what it will take to galvanize the world and force local governments and the international community to recognize the problem.

In light of the other abuse of these animals- using them as show business stars- this is the primary channel by which most people seem to recognize orangutans. At least Clyde, famous through Clint Eastwood films, raises public awareness that orangutans do exist. Surely we should be capitalizing on this and tying it into conservation efforts.

As to the process of rehabilitation, the overriding question are "does it work?" and, "how do we measure its success ?" Ultimately, this remains the only humane, working solution to the problem of confiscated orangutans. It is suggested here that rehabilitation programmes are best regarded as yet another form of exploitation. This then represents a positive use of orangutans that needs developing further. Ecotourism, whilst not a viable prospect for wild populations, could be expanded to enable visitors to view semi-wild, rehabilitated individuals in a natural environment. As the orangutan has already been used as a national mascot to promote tourism for Malaysia, it would seem logical to move on and emphasize its role as a flagship species for conservation.

The challenge facing us is to come full-circle and use the public recognition of the orangutan through the media industry to highlight the need to save them in the wild. The contention put forward here is that we should use the ecotourism potential afforded by rehabilitation centres (which are necessary anyway) to help achieve this end.

Not surprisingly perhaps, orangutans have long held a peculiar fascination for human beings - even the earliest European explorers to the region, could not help but make mention of their close affinity to us. For example, Captain Beekman writes in 1714:

"The Monkeys, Apes, and Baboons are of many different Sorts and Shapes; but the most remarkable are those they call Oran ootans, which in their Language signifies Men of the Woods: these grow up to be six foot high; they walk upright, have longer arms than men, tolerable good faces (handsomer I am sure than some Hottentots I have seen), large Teeth, no Tails nor Hair, but on those Parts where it grows on humane Bodies; they are very nimble footed and mighty strong; they throw great stones, sticks, and Billets at those Persons that offend them. The Natives do really believe that these were formerly Men, but Meta-morphosed into Beasts for their Blasphemy."

It would be tragic if this very humanness were to be responsible for their downfall.

V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge the help of the following: Sarah Cunliffe, Michael Leach, Mark Linfield, the Orangutan Foundation International, Patti Regan and Ian Singleton. They also wish to thank Vicky Taylor for editorial assistance, and an anonymous referee for comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript.

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